Spinal Disorders
1. Introduction
1.1 Definition and Types
1.2 Prevalence and Impact
1.3 Importance of Research
2. Causes and Risk Factors
Traumatic injuries to the spine are normally serious and may lead to permanent impairment or disability. These injuries may result from a fall, a car crash, or any other sudden impact that places stress on the spinal column. For instance, a sudden, forceful, backward jerking motion of the head and neck, known as whiplash, may lead to neck injuries. Fractures, dislocations, and other injuries to the spine can have serious consequences, including permanent disability and decreased life expectancy. These injuries may also impair function and productivity in the family and in the workplace. However, not every person who has a spinal injury will develop symptoms or a spinal disorder. This is largely because the severity and type of injury, the age and general health of the individual, and other factors all play a role in the injury’s impact on the person’s life and health. In addition, while the body’s ability to recover from injury – including the initial symptoms as well as any symptoms that may develop over time – is variable and not well understood, immobilization and prompt medical or surgical treatment can sometimes prevent the condition from rapidly getting worse. Traumatic injury may also result from overuse or misuse of the spine. However, most of these injuries, termed “chronic” by some doctors, are due to a very slight, small stress that has been going on for a long time. These injuries finally result in a fracture, dislocation, or other injury. For example, putting undue stresses on the low back, such as improper lifting, car accidents, and sports injuries, can lead to a condition called spondylolisthesis. Spondylolisthesis means the forward displacement of a body of one of the lower lumbar vertebrae on the vertebra below it or on the sacrum. It may occur as a result of a fracture in the pars interarticularis as a result of acute fracture or a stress fracture caused by repeated flexion and extension of the low back. Spondylolisthesis can occur at any level of the spine but is most common in the lower lumbar spine, particularly at the L5-S1 level. It may cause low back pain and muscle tightness in the lower back. Exercises, supporting the back and abdominal muscles with bracing, and the prevention of stress on the low back can be helpful to prevent the condition. However, many different factors may contribute to the development of spinal disorder in individuals who have sustained traumatic injuries, and a combination of factors is most likely involved. For example, a person who sustains a traumatic injury may have a family history of spinal disorders. In such a situation, it is unclear whether the injury caused the disorder, or if the injury only aggravated the disorder already present in the individual’s genes. On the other hand, when a person does not have a family history of spinal disorders, the traumatic injury may be the primary cause of a disorder. In addition to these factors, it is highly likely that environmental and genetic factors interplay to cause a spinal disorder after a traumatic injury. For example, a person who has sustained a traumatic injury and has adopted a lifestyle that places heavy stress on the spine – such as improper lifting, smoking, and not receiving proper nutrition – may worsen their spinal disorder. On the other hand, if a person who has sustained a traumatic injury and has other medical conditions under control – such as obesity or cardiovascular disease – will likely recover better from their injury and prevent or slow the development of a spinal disorder. Also, early treatment and adherence to prescribed treatments may help to decrease the severe disabilities and complications arising from the traumatic injury, although the responses to various treatments will vary from individual to individual. The first in the family to have a genetic disorder of the spine, such as ankylosing spondylitis or diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis, and the signs or symptoms are on the verge of appearing.
2.1 Traumatic Injuries
The effect of a spinal cord injury has a status of deep concern and has critical fitness, financial, emotional, and social consequences for the person and their family.
Spinal cord injuries can be devastating, resulting in loss of function and reduced life health. Very early treatment can substantially improve the chances of recovery in some cases, which is why all patients who suffer from any form of spinal injury should be considered as an emergency case and treated as soon as possible. Also, some patients may require continuing treatment or specialized therapeutic and house adjustments, which can be very expensive.
Injuries are often classified into two types of injury – those which are classed as ‘complete’ and those which are ‘incomplete’. A ‘complete injury’ means that there is no function below the level of the injury, whereas an ‘incomplete’ injury means that there is some function below the level of the injury.
In spinal cord injuries, the degree of severity is not immediately known. The symptoms may vary from the very minor (spasms, stiffness) to more serious (loss of use of limbs). There can be a delay between the time of injury and the appearance of symptoms. Knowing the spinal level affected by the injury is vital, especially when transporting the patient to the hospital, to ensure that the medical staff at the hospital do not exacerbate the injury when moving the patient. Prompt professional medical investigation is always essential.
Traumatic spinal cord injuries result from a sudden and traumatic blow to the spine that fractures or dislocates vertebrae. Car accidents are the most common cause of such injuries in the US, especially for younger adults. Also, every year, more than 250,000 Americans suffer some type of spinal cord injury, and approximately 12,000 new cases are reported annually.
2.2 Degenerative Conditions
Degenerative conditions are the result of wear and tear in the spine. This could be simply age-related or due to an old injury that eventually leads to a form of degeneration, with symptoms such as spinal stenosis developing much later in life. There are various forms of this condition, and most involve loss of function in the spine. Disc degeneration is the breakdown of the spongy discs, which act as both a cushion for the vertebrae and a shock absorber. This is often mistaken for general back pain, but the symptoms are far more serious. It is believed to be most commonly caused by a form of trauma, for example a sudden accident or sports injury – but can also occur over a longer period of time. As well as natural wear and tear, the effects of the herniated disc can lead to spinal stenosis – where the spaces available for the spinal cord become more narrow and can lead to additional pains and problems in nerve function. Another problem with degeneration is the development of osteophytes, or more commonly, bone spurs. The body naturally generates these, and they are usually reabsorbed back into the system without any concern. However, in the context of the spine, the bone growths become painful when they grow into the spaces that are needed for the nerves to work. These are a common cause of spinal stenosis, and require more prescriptions of surgeries than any other degenerative diseases. Finally, when degeneration has taken a hold of the spine over a number of years, a distinct and very painful symptom begins to be noticed. Facet joint syndrome is the inflammation of the ‘hinges’ of the vertebrae, and is caused by the connective fibres of the joint beginning to deteriorate. This presents as a stiffness and pain in normal movement, and can also lead to bone deformation and nerve damage – if left untreated.
2.3 Genetic Factors
Different spinal disorders have different genetic markers. For example, ankylosing spondylitis shows an association with the HLA-B27 gene. Genetic studies of spinal disorders have significantly progressed in the last decade, allowing researchers to identify more genetic variants that may be associated with the development of spinal disorders. New developments in technology such as next-generation sequencing have made it more efficient and cost-effective to identify genetic causes. By studying the genetics of spinal disorders, researchers hope to improve understanding of disease mechanisms. This can provide new targets for treatments and allows us to move towards personalized and precision medicine. In the future, patients may be offered specific treatments based on the most likely cause of their condition, which may also help prevent the condition from getting worse. The success of genetic studies in spinal disorders relies heavily upon international collaboration. Due to the low numbers of patients with spinal disorders in each country, it is often hard to identify enough patients to ensure that the research provides meaningful results. By working with international partners, we can combine patient data from around the world. This improves the power of the research and means that our findings are more likely to be accurate and reliable. This international collaboration can also ensure that our research benefits from the latest developments in genetic technology. With worldwide expertise, we can be sure that patients receive the best care based on the most up-to-date findings in the field. As we discover more about the genetic causes of spinal disorders and develop new treatments for these conditions, genetics will continue to play an important role in the future of the field. Studies regarding genetic aspects of spinal disorders would be revolutionary in the future as precision medicine and personalized treatments require genetic understanding of such disorders. For the patients, these studies give hope that the cause of their condition can be targeted directly with efficient and effective treatments. One day, patients may no longer have to suffer years of progressive disability that cannot be effectively prevented or treated. For the healthcare system, investment in genetics research can have a big impact on society. By targeting the cause of conditions instead of just treating the symptoms, healthcare resources can be used more effectively.
3. Diagnosis and Assessment
While there are no universally established criteria for the diagnosis of spinal disorders, doctors typically use a variety of methods to come to a more accurate conclusion. According to “Spinal Disorders: A Comprehensive Study,” the first key aspect of diagnosing a spinal disorder is a comprehensive medical history. A person receiving a diagnosis will generally undergo a thorough examination of their physical body so that the medical professional can assess the different signs of a spinal disorder. At the same time, the individual will be asked about their medical history, medication, and any symptoms they are experiencing. This might include any or all of the common symptoms associated with spinal disorders, such as back pain, muscle weakness, or altered sensation. Writing in the “Spinal Disorders: A Comprehensive Study,” the authors note that while laboratory tests can be useful for helping to confirm a diagnosis suggested by medical history or physical examination, they are often costly and may not be the most appropriate first step. In cases where laboratory testing is used, the study advises that there should be a ‘clear rationale’ for its usefulness. There are a number of different possible physical signs that might indicate a spinal disorder, such as difficulty walking, difficulty maintaining balance, a change in muscle tone, or altered reflexes. This is a combination of genetics and chance, for “Spinal Disorders: A Comprehensive Study” explains that a history of certain spinal disorders in the family, alongside harmful lifestyle choices, can increase the likelihood of a person being diagnosed with a spinal disorder. This assessment process is set out in the work “Spinal Disorders: A Comprehensive Study,” which includes the taking of a comprehensive medical history, performing a physical examination, using various imaging techniques and, if necessary, conducting laboratory tests to confirm a diagnosis. By using these comprehensive methods, the study emphasizes that a doctor is more likely to be able to correctly diagnose and provide treatment for a spinal disorder.
3.1 Medical History and Physical Examination
A medical history should comprise of several key elements. Firstly, the doctor will look for any underlying genetic conditions. This could unfold a spinal cord disorder, as there are over 200 genetic types of muscular dystrophy, all of which can be signified by a curvature of the spine. Secondly, a doctor may query about a patient’s developmental history such as scoliosis, a condition that tends to emerge in a patient’s adolescence. They might also take a developmental history from the parents. Thirdly, doctors look for any history of traumatic injuries in the course of a medical history. This is important as traumatic injuries are one of the leading causes of spinal disorders and can result in a multitude of problems such as fractures, subluxations and dislocations in the spine. Many people in the contemporary are also experiencing spinal disorders due to high energy trauma from car accidents. Physical exams are essential in adding to the information learnt from the medical history. Patients can expect to undergo a variety of examinations such as gait testing, neurological examination and the ‘straight leg raise test’ (Laseque’s sign). The ‘straight leg raise test’ is particularly used to diagnose radiculopathy, a medical condition that affects the spine and nerves. This involves a doctor lifting the patient’s leg while the patient is lying down. If the leg causes pain when raised between 30 and 70 degrees, then this can be suggestive of radiculopathy. Computerized tomography (CT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and x-ray are all examples of radiological testing which assist doctors in assessing the nature and severity of spinal disorders. CT scans can be used to detect bony areas of the body whereas MRI is useful in visualizing soft tissues such as the tendons, ligaments and nerves. On the other hand, x-ray scans are the oldest and most frequently used type of physical examination testing when investigating spinal disorders. Laboratory testing such as blood chemistry, blood count and analysis of inflammatory markers may also be employed to eliminate other possible diagnosis or to reveal an underlying systematic pathology. Ergonomic studies are also sometimes used for diagnosis where a patient’s normal daily activities and postures are assessed in order to identify the presence of certain spinal disorders.
3.2 Imaging Techniques
Alas, some types of spinal disorders, particularly spinal cord traumas and demyelinating disorders, such as multiple sclerosis, may be best visualized with another imaging technique called myelography. This involves injecting a contrast dye into the spinal canal followed by a CT scan or X-rays. The contrast dye appears white on the images by the X-rays and can help show the disorders or abnormalities of the spinal cord and the nerves. Nowadays, myelography is less frequently used as MRI and CT technology advances and research in these areas have taken place.
CT scans use computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to generate cross-sectional images of the bones and soft tissues inside the body. It is particularly useful in the assessment of complex fractures, spinal instability, and patients for whom MRI is contraindicated, such as those with pacemakers or certain types of metallic implants. CT scans may require the use of an intravenous or an oral contrast, which can help highlight specific areas or structures in the body. Nevertheless, CT scans involve exposure to ionizing radiation, and medical practitioners should use them judiciously and weigh the benefits against the potential risks when they order these types of investigations.
MRI uses a strong magnetic field and radio waves to produce detailed images of the spinal cord and nerves. MRI scans are helpful in identifying spinal cord compression, damage to the spinal cord and the surrounding areas caused by disc herniations or spinal bony overgrowths, and abnormalities in the ligaments and membranes. MRI is considered to be a superior technique for providing detailed images of the spinal cord and the spinal nerves compared with CT scans.
Imaging techniques, including X-rays, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and computerized tomography (CT) scans, play an important role in the diagnosis and assessment of spinal disorders. X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation that can pass through the body to create images of the internal structures. They are commonly used to view the bones and can help the doctor assess the presence and severity of degenerative disorders and traumatic injuries, such as fractures and dislocations.
3.3 Laboratory Tests
Laboratory tests involve examining a sample of a patient’s blood, which can provide important information about the patient’s overall health and wellbeing. There are a number of blood tests that can help diagnose conditions that are related to spinal disorders. For example, a full blood count can provide details about the number of cells in the blood, helping to identify conditions such as infection and anemia. Inflammatory markers – which are proteins that the body produces in response to an infection or injury – can also be measured in the blood. These tests can help to understand whether there is increased inflammation in the body, which is a common feature of many spinal disorders. Furthermore, blood chemistry tests can provide detail about the levels of certain chemicals in the blood, such as sodium, potassium, and calcium. These tests can help to determine how well certain bodily organs and systems are functioning and can provide vital information about conditions such as diabetes, kidney disease, and metabolic disorders. Finally, a test for a genetic marker called HLA-B27 is sometimes used to help diagnose ankylosing spondylitis, which is a type of inflammatory arthritis that affects the spine and sacroiliac joints. This condition is a known cause of chronic lower back pain. The test involves taking a blood sample and then examining the white blood cells to look for the presence of this genetic marker. Whilst a positive result can support the diagnosis of ankylosing spondylitis, it should be used in conjunction with medical history, physical examination and other imaging results. These findings help to confirm the diagnosis.
4. Treatment and Management
Non-surgical approaches are usually the preferred initial method of managing spinal disorders. In this section, we will explore a number of different emerging therapies that are starting to play a role in the management of spinal disorders. For example, tissue engineering is an innovative field that has the potential to revolutionize the care of patients with a range of spinal pathologies. Tissue engineering involves the development of biological substitutes that can help restore tissue function or induce its ability to regenerate, ultimately leading to repair or replacement of defective body tissues. Researchers are investigating the use of tissue engineering for spinal disorders such as intervertebral disc disease and spinal cord injury. Early data from experimental studies showed promising results into the potential of this form of therapy, and scientific work is ongoing to translate these findings into meaningful clinical benefits for patients. High quality randomized controlled trials and further long-term research are required to fully appreciate the clinical outcome of these new therapies. Other complementary therapies are also becoming more popular, but careful interpretation of the some of the evidence is required. For example, acupuncture might lead to small, short-term improvements in the symptoms of chronic back pain. However, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) does not currently recommend acupuncture for medical treatment or assessment of low back pain. NICE guidelines note that there is limited evidence that it might help to reduce pain for some individuals at the most in 12 months, but that other treatments show more helpful and long-term effects in managing the symptoms. Similarly, NICE guidelines for the management of early, persistent rheumatoid arthritis suggest that patients should have access to clinical services that provide a range of treatments – but they do not currently recommend chiropractic treatment. “Chiropractic claiming to cure or improve ‘abnormal function’ as a cause of rheumatoid arthritis without adequate evidence as to cure is not acceptable” is a direct quote from the guidelines. Nevertheless, further well-designed studies are necessary to investigate the safety, clinical effectiveness, and cost effectiveness of these emerging therapies for spinal disorders before they can form part of recommended care pathways.
4.1 Non-Surgical Approaches
There are several non-surgical treatment approaches recommended for spinal disorders. One of the most common non-surgical strategies and the first-line of therapy for disc-related pain is exercise. Folding forward can make disc-related symptoms worsen. This is how forces may be generated as much as six times pressure. It can also reduce pain and increase motion. Because there is not much muscle activity and much pressure on the discs when one is sitting. Focus on exercises that help build up the back (back extensor muscles). Flexibility and strengthening exercises are the key to diminish flare-ups of lower back pain. The core-strengthening exercises support the lower back. Spinal stenosis and some other spinal disorders are primarily treated with medication and activity modification. Such medications include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen or oral steroids. Spinal stenosis symptoms can be reduced by resting (usually in spinal extension) or sitting. When the pain comes on, typically with walking, there will be stability and relief provided and the pain is going to be less. Also taught as part of a back education program, the patient is instructed to regularly move the lower back through a prescribed range of motion exercises. But the patient does not get into the motion where one suffers the most. The exercise program must be closely monitored to make sure the patient does not do a lot. Although the pain and decreased mobility of spinal disorders can be overwhelming, non-surgical treatment methods can often provide substantial relief in a patient-curated manner.
4.2 Surgical Interventions
The specific amount of time required for recovery and rehabilitation after spinal surgery will depend on the type of operation and the individual patient’s overall health. However, for the majority of these procedures it can be expected that the patient will need to be admitted to the hospital for a certain length of time, often a few days. Pain from the operation is usually managed by medications, and most patients are able to stand and walk (with assistance) within the first day after the surgery. However, pain may continue for a number of weeks, and more physical activities are generally not recommended for at least eight weeks after a spinal surgery. Once a patient is released from the hospital, follow-up care including physical therapy is often a crucial next step. A physical therapy program prescribed by a physician will aim to gradually build up the patient’s strength and flexibility in order to improve the function of the spine. Such care can go a long way in ensuring the long-term success of surgical intervention for spinal disorders by leading to a more complete and rapid recovery time and a reduced chance of future injury or complications. For example, without physical therapy there may be scar tissue that forms and causes the patient to have back pain or other pain issues for a longer period of time. Further, the failure to properly use the muscles surrounding the spine may result in future injury. Finally, adherence to a physical therapy program may actually eliminate the need for smaller “revision surgeries” often required after a primary spinal operation; adequate use of the supporting musculature can potentially prevent the need for further invasive procedures in the future. These therapy sessions can last from six to eight weeks, and are generally done two to three times per week. Also, additional restrictions on activity and returning to work may apply until the spinal surgeon clears the patient for a normal routine. Students and working adults who undergo spinal surgery are usually required to demonstrate that they are capable of returning to full-time employment before being allowed to do so.
A discectomy involves the removal of a portion of an intervertebral disc which is placing pressure on a nearby nerve. It is most often utilized in cases of disc herniation, which occurs when the tough outer layer of the disc becomes torn and the central, gelatinous portion leaks out, placing pressure on a nearby nerve root. In foraminotomy, the bone at the sides of the vertebrae and the intervertebral foramen is cut away to widen the passageway and relieve the compression of the spinal nerves. This is commonly performed in cases of foraminal stenosis, which is the narrowing of the intervertebral foramen and is often attributed to the natural aging process. Surgeons may also opt to perform a laminectomy, wherein the laminae (the bony arches of the vertebral column) are removed. This can relieve pressure on the spinal cord and is performed in many different diagnostic scenarios. Finally, spinal fusion is utilized to stop the motion at a painful vertebral segment, which is especially helpful when the pain is caused by segment motion. It involves the joining of two or more vertebrae together using bone grafts and internal devices such as metal rods. After a spinal fusion, the motion in that segment of the spine is limited, but this can actually lead to a significant reduction in pain because the nerve roots are no longer being irritated.
A variety of surgical interventions exist as potential treatments for spinal disorders. The type of surgery recommended will depend on the individual patient’s diagnosis, symptoms, and medical history. The surgical options vary greatly depending upon the specific disorder being treated, but the overarching goal of surgery is to relieve pain, stabilize the spine, and restore the column to its normal alignment. The most common types of spinal surgery include discectomy, foraminotomy, laminectomy, and spinal fusion.
4.3 Rehabilitation and Follow-up Care
Emphasis is consistently made regarding the importance of rehabilitation and follow-up care for patients undergoing treatment. It is highlighted that a multi-disciplinary approach, involving health professionals such as physical therapists and rehabilitation physicians, may be required in order to develop a tailored rehabilitation programme suited to the needs of each individual patient. The goal of such a programme is to optimize the patient’s recovery and to help them return to daily activities; this may involve a gradual increase in activities, flexibility and strengthening exercises, and treatments aimed at reducing pain. The patient’s progress in rehabilitation is often monitored and treatment plans may be adapted accordingly. Patients are encouraged to play an active role in their rehabilitation, in part to help them emotionally and socially through what can often be a difficult time as well as physically. A sufficient period of time allocated for a patient to receive extensive rehabilitation therapy following a surgical procedure is important, as it is recognized that the potential benefits of such therapy can often only be maximized if the patient’s overall condition is significantly enhanced. It is explained that the role of the various health professionals involved in this stage of care often remains as important as during the acute and treatment phases, and continued interdisciplinary cooperation is essential. This ensures that the patient continues to be monitored in the most effective way and that any new developments or complications that may arise post-surgery can be adequately addressed. In the final parts of this section, follow-up care is discussed and is also considered to be an important aspect in the comprehensive care of patients affected by spinal disorders. The primary aim of follow-up care is to ensure that the patient maintains the best possible spinal function, physical activity and general well-being throughout their life. Studies have shown that following an initial period of active treatment and rehabilitation, patients often benefit from a longer term follow-up program. This may take the form of regular clinic appointments with the patient’s family doctor or specialists, periodic reassessments and also the use of less formal support networks such as self-help groups for patients with similar disorders. The text concludes by noting that the growing field of computer-aided rehabilitation is helping to improve the effectiveness of rehabilitation programs, as well as to better understand the changes that occur in the body and the spine during the recovery and adaptation process. Such technology may also help researchers to develop new and more effective therapies, ultimately providing more opportunities for patients.
4.4 Emerging Therapies
These three examples collectively provide a sense of the exciting and diverse ways that researchers and clinicians are working to expand the range of options available for the treatment of spinal disorders.
Finally, research into the use of advanced robotics in spinal therapy is now gaining prominence. Robotics can allow for incredibly precise and delicate procedures to be carried out by surgeons. For example, the use of robot-assisted navigation can help surgeons to better plan and execute spinal fusion surgeries. This technique uses a CT scan to create a 3D model of the patient’s spine and helps the surgeon to develop a detailed and patient-specific plan. Then, in the operating room, the robotic system can help the surgeon to ensure that the plan is followed as closely as possible. This has the potential to both improve patient outcomes and to reduce the risk of complications – for example, by minimizing damage to healthy tissue through which surgical access must be made. As the investment in this area continues to grow, the development of robotics specific to spine surgery is likely to become more and more patient-focused.
Another exciting therapy is the use of neuromodulation techniques, which can involve a range of different approaches to alter nerve activity in order to reduce pain and other symptoms. For example, spinal cord stimulation uses electrical pulses to the spinal cord to interfere with the transmission of pain signals. On the other hand, peripheral nerve stimulation targets certain nerves in the body to achieve similar results. In recent years, advances in technology have led to the development of devices that allow for more focused and personalised types of stimulation. These new approaches draw upon emerging understandings of neurology and the development of smaller, smarter, and more adaptable types of hardware.
One increasingly common type of emerging therapy is the use of biologics. This refers to the use of substances that are obtained from the patient’s own body, such as stem cells or blood products, and used to help in tissue repair and reduce inflammation. These substances are often administered through injections or as part of a surgical procedure. Research into this type of therapy is very active and presents a lot of hope for the future.
