The Role of International Organizations in Promoting Dialogue and Cooperation among Middle Eastern States
1.2 Objectives
A large number of studies have looked at the instruments, tools, or measures of Middle Eastern conflict resolution used by international organizations (IOs). Though many of the researchers have evaluated the success of these tools, there are fewer who have analyzed the definition or identification of success of conflict resolution in the Middle East. In order to establish the parameters of success of conflict resolution, it is essential to identify the desired end goal of Middle Eastern conflict resolution, since the success of a process is determined by whether the outcome achieved was what was desired. To determine whether successful conflict resolution in the Middle East can be identified, it is necessary to first identify the desired objectives of conflict resolution both by those internal and external to the conflict. Finally, by comparing the objectives of Middle Eastern conflict resolution attained by various methods and measures, it will be possible to determine the success of conflict resolution in the Middle East and thus create parameters of success on this issue. This last step follows an iterative logic since in comparing the present state of the Middle East with its past and with other regions, it is usually doom and gloom prophecies which keep policy makers persevering with this issue. In creating a picture of positive change in the future it will be possible to lend added impetus to Middle Eastern conflict resolution.
1.3 Significance of the Study
This study is significant as it provides insights into the gradually evolving role of regional international organizations in the fraught political landscape of the Middle East. Serious scholarly attention to the role of regional international organizations provides a viable supplement to the predominantly state-centric focus of traditional Middle East political studies. This is significant given the increasingly important role of regional international organizations in the conduct and resolution of disputes among member states and their potential for contributing to the stability and security of the region. If the FTAs in question are stepping stones to EU integration, then insights from the experience of Middle Eastern regional international organizations will also be of relevance to students of European integration and the theoretical literature on spill over and integration. In policy terms, a clearer understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of regional international organizations in the Middle East may assist policymakers and international organization personnel in the development and monitoring of conflict resolution initiatives in the region, and in designing externally sponsored approaches to building regional security architectures.
2. International Organizations in the Middle East
At its most basic level, regional cooperation involves states working together to achieve a common goal. Regional integration gives this cooperation a specific form, where states voluntarily delegate some of their sovereignty in order to gain collective benefits from working together in specific areas. International and regional organizations provide the forums through which this cooperation takes place and are the means with which regional integration is promoted. These organizations are structures of states, which are bound by an international treaty and are established to achieve specified objectives involving cooperation among the participating states. The idea is effectively that through the organizations, states can achieve more collectively than they could do alone due to the presence of a centralized body that has its own institutions and enjoys some degree of autonomy from the member states. The organizations then act as independent actors in the international system in their specified area, and enjoy privileges and immunities from national jurisdictions in order to facilitate their work. Such organizations work at both the official and unofficial level in the Middle East. Whether the work is legitimate is something to be verified through the success it achieves in its goals since legitimacy, as discussed earlier, is dependent on perceptions.
2.1 Overview of International Organizations
The Middle Eastern region has had its share of conflict and it is often argued that it is resistant to regional integration. However, it would be too cynical to say that nothing has been done to promote cooperation and dialogue in the region. Many international and regional organizations have been involved in dialogue and cooperation in the Middle East. Such organizations have included the League of Arab States, regional UN and EU as well as global international organizations such as the IMF, World Bank and UN. Their involvement has taken many forms and their impact is varied but it is important to highlight such activity as a prelude to suggesting ways to tackle the underlying issues that hinder cooperation and dialogue.
Section “2. International Organizations in the Middle East”
2.1 Overview of International Organizations
International organizations have long been involved in the Middle East and North Africa. Following the Second World War, MENA states were a forum for superpower rivalry as the United States and Soviet Union vied for influence. The superpowers and their allies established a regional security framework in the form of the Baghdad Pact (CENTO) and later the US-sponsored Middle East Force. Reflecting the regional preoccupation of the time with containing Arab nationalism and stemming the spread of communism, these organizations were security-oriented and designed to protect the status quo. They collapsed in the wake of the 1967 Arab-Israeli war. With the Cold War serving to divert attention towards building alliances and security pacts with opposing global powers, the United Nations had limited success in preventing conflict or promoting development in the region. However, since the end of the Cold War, there has been a surge in the number and activity of IOs involved in the Middle East. This reflects increasing recognition of the region’s strategic importance and the corresponding desire of global powers to engage with it. IOs are viewed by many states as a means of accessing foreign aid, promoting economic development, and, post 9/11, incurring favor with the United States. The region itself has seen an increased desire for linkages with the global political economy and a growing acceptance that involvement with international actors may help in promoting development or solving regional problems. IOs appeal to regional states as they offer a forum in which to discuss security concerns, conduct diplomacy, or resolve disputes short of resorting to conflict.
2.2 Role of International Organizations in the Middle East
Another empirical case is of the European Union which runs a common security and defense policy. An ongoing and enduring example is the EU Police Mission (EUPOL COPPS) in Palestine which is a clear demonstration of its commitment to help build the necessary institutions for a future Palestinian state. Although the success of ESDP missions has been called into question due to their limited scope and resources, it can be seen that the aims are positive and could potentially have long-term benefits for the security in Palestine and Israel.
The promotion of regional security is an obvious first choice to analyze an international organization’s objectives in the Middle East. Taking a human security approach, one of the primary aims of security is to ensure citizens are free from both internal and external threats. Looking specifically at the United Nations, when the US and UK proposed a second resolution to the Iraq crisis, Secretary General Kofi Annan indicated that military action by the US and UK without the consent of the Security Council would contravene the UN Charter. This brought attention to the fact that the US and UK would be in breach of international law if they proceeded to act unilaterally, later resulting in the withdrawal of troops from Iraq indicating that action taken by the United Nations may have been an important factor in preserving the security and stability of Iraq.
Given the presence of international organizations in the region, it is essential to broaden the scope and take a closer look at their overall impact and influence on state relations with each other. Ultimately, the main aim would be to identify relevant empirical cases and provide explanations on how these organizations could potentially be improved so they become more effective tools for promoting dialogue and cooperation between states in the Middle East.
2.3 Challenges Faced by International Organizations in the Region
A major issue faced by international organizations working in the Middle East is the problem of national security and sovereignty. Many Middle Eastern governments are reluctant to compromise their national sovereignty or security for the greater good of regional cooperation. This is especially true of the Gulf States, who fear that unification efforts may undermine their security by making them more vulnerable to external threats or influence. An example would be Qatar’s refusal to sign a defense agreement with the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in 2000, stating that it would not subordinate its national policies and army to a higher GCC security council. During the same year, Iraq rejected an Iran-Syria plan for defense cooperation, fearing that it might lead to Iranian hegemony in the region. The invasion of Iraq in 2003 and subsequent events have made the issue of national security and sovereignty an even more salient issue, as the destruction of the former regime has left a power vacuum and fueled regional proxy wars. The inability to guarantee the security of member states and inability to include ‘unfriendly’ regimes has led to organizations like the UN to seek a mandate for operations in the region, as was the case of UNSCR 1546 regarding the situation in Iraq. However, reluctance of the US to hand over political power and the subsequent civil war has left the UN hesitant to offer greater assistance. This issue then greatly affects the ability of international organizations to achieve anything substantial in terms of conflict prevention or resolution in the region.
The discussion on the challenges faced by international organizations in promoting dialogue and cooperation aims to highlight some major issues that pose as a barrier to the success of international organizations in achieving their goals. These challenges include the issues of national sovereignty and security, the problem of lack of representation, and issues of resources and time.
3. Promoting Dialogue among Middle Eastern States
Conflict resolution in the Middle East requires a way that can help in preventing any more conflicts. These conflicts can be turned into something that is less intense and easier to solve if successful dialogue initiatives can be encouraged. In this perspective, dialogue initiatives refer to a series of interactions between conflicting groups, both formally and informally, with the goal of resolving conflicts, building understanding and laying out a foundation of peaceful relations and cooperation in the future. This definition covers various aspects of dialogue; from peace talks between governments, to NGO activities, people-to-people interactions and so on. Successful dialogue initiatives can change the way of thinking and perception of the conflicting parties. It can turn animosity into empathy, suspicion into trust and eventually can bring a breakthrough in the conflicts. Successful dialogue also can establish a channel of communication that both parties can use to prevent further conflicts from escalating.
International organizations understand the importance of dialogue initiatives in preventing and resolving conflicts in the Middle East. As an alternative to traditional diplomacy and hard power methods of conflict resolution, dialogue initiatives resonate with the principles of conflict prevention and peaceful settlement of disputes enshrined in the UN Charter. Successful dialogue initiatives can create a more peaceful environment in the Middle East, can reduce the presence of conflicts that are damaging to regional and global security and can create a platform for the peaceful resolution of remaining conflicts. By supporting dialogue initiatives, it is possible for international organizations to have a significant impact on the conflict resolution process in the Middle East.
3.1 Importance of Dialogue in Resolving Conflicts
Dialogue and mediation have often been a first step in the involvement of third parties to prevent conflict escalation. This is part of the reasoning behind conflict prevention as the method states that it is more efficient to prevent wars before they start than to have to resolve them later. Third parties can use anything from quiet diplomacy to publicly calling for peace talks and providing and/or threatening to use economic and military incentives to lure the two parties to the negotiation table. The development of new communication technology means that there are more ways to engage in peace talks, and an analysis has shown that mediated peace talks are more likely to be successful, particularly in conflicts with high casualties.
If conflicts are in the early stages and violence is sporadic, it may be easier for conflicting parties to agree to discussions and dialogue on issues. Low-intensity conflicts and disputes sometimes become frozen as the parties engage in a protracted struggle in which there are only occasional military skirmishes but recognition that the issues are too costly to give up. In these cases, one party may only engage in discussions if there is a significant incentive or if the party feels they can change the status quo to their advantage. In more serious conflicts, the conflict may have to become more destructive before any discernible changes in the will of either party to engage in serious peace talks. This unfortunately means that often it is the increase in human misery caused by the conflict that leads to serious peace initiatives. This was the case in the Algeria-France conflict where the conflict had to become a drain on resources for France and so disruptive for Algeria that both agreed it would be better to have discussions on how to re-establish a new relationship between the two parties. Unfortunately, by this time, there may be so much bitterness between the parties due to the high number of casualties and destruction caused by the conflict that discussions may not be productive and certainly will not be a quick fix to the conflict.
The first step in resolving conflicts is for the parties to engage in discussions to air their grievances. Though this may seem simple to the outsider, it can be very difficult in practice. If the involved parties have different cultures of conflict resolution, one party may interpret the other’s willingness to talk as a sign of weakness and press their advantage. They also may not consider negotiations as a serious effort to resolve the conflict rather than a stalling measure to avoid defeat. If the conflict is highly emotional and issues are very contentious, discussions on the specific issues may exacerbate rather than resolve the conflict as parties become more entrenched in their positions in an attempt to give a favorable starting point for negotiations. The hardest part is getting the conflicting parties to agree to terms and a location for discussions. Often each party will want discussions to be on their own terms, which may place them in a more advantageous position.
3.2 Initiatives by International Organizations to Foster Dialogue
A number of international organizations have attempted to promote dialogue and increase understanding between Middle Eastern states. Dialogue is encouraged between Middle Eastern states and other countries around the world by the United Nations. Numerous organizations have sprung up in the aftermath of the Madrid Peace Conference in 1991. One example is the Euro-Med partnership which involves the European Union and 15 of the Mediterranean states. One of its primary goals is to build on shared interests and work towards increased economic integration. This has been facilitated through the creation of the European Neighbourhood Policy; the establishment of free trade areas and encouraging the free movement of people and goods. The Anna Lindh Foundation is a joint venture involving the European Commission and the non-governmental organizations of the Euro-Med countries. It seeks to improve mutual respect between cultures and prevent any form of extremism through the education of Euro-Med citizens. The United Nations attempts to create and maintain dialogue in the Middle East through its UNISPAL program. This initiative looks to promote peace between Israel and Palestine by increasing the free flow of information, supporting local NGOs, and encouraging Palestinians in the development of a viable state, offering them aid in the process.
3.3 Successes and Failures in Promoting Dialogue
One of the earliest initiatives promoting dialogue and building bridges between Middle Eastern countries was that of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) founded in 1981. Comprising Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Qatar, the GCC’s main priority as an organization has been to provide security and stability for its members. The 1990 invasion of Kuwait by Iraq therefore provided a major challenge to this, resulting in a shift in priority towards enhancing defense cooperation and integration of member state armed forces. The existence of the GCC and its accomplishments, however, demonstrate regional willingness towards the discussion of common interests and the betterment of relations between neighboring states. This is the primary theoretical objective of dialogue, and though GCC dialogue has often been undermined by conflicting national interests, the fact remains that dialogue may take time to evolve into a successful mechanism for conflict resolution.
The efforts of the United Nations have been fundamental in the attempt to promote peace and dialogue in the Middle East. The 1973 and 1979 wars between Israel and the Arab states, the Gulf War of 1990-1991, and the ongoing Arab-Israeli conflict have provided the UN with many challenges and the opportunity to employ a wide range of methods in resolving or preventing conflict. These have ranged from diplomatic persuasion and the imposition of economic sanctions to the deployment of peacekeeping and observer missions in conflict zones. In accordance with the UN Charter, the primary aim has always been to prevent the escalation of disputes into wider conflicts and to seek long-term solutions to underlying causes of instability. This has been demonstrated in 1983 by the establishment of a commission to inquire into the Iran-Iraq war and in recent years by the extensive efforts to resolve the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Though these efforts have seen varied success, the central role of the UN in uniting almost all Middle Eastern states under a common form of multilateral dialogue should not be underestimated.
3.4 Case Studies of Successful Dialogue Initiatives
Case studies of successful dialogue initiatives in the Middle East can provide important insights into effective ways to promote dialogue. In peace research and conflict resolution, there is a need for in-depth analysis of practical experiences of peacemaking, either in the form of post-conflict construction after the fighting has stopped, or as means to prevent escalation of the conflict to violence. Unfortunately, as Zartman notes, “most conflict resolution has consisted of advocacy and change in attitude rather than what have been recognised as more important structural or behavioural changes” (Zartman, 1995a: xii). Case studies can be a good way of demonstrating how behaviour has been changed, especially if the case study is first set as the situation with the undesired behaviour and followed through to resolution. While it is unreasonable to expect peace researchers and practitioners to outline every step in a plan as Peacemongers demands, detailed case studies are an excellent way to learn from the successes and failures of previous initiatives. The two case studies of the Rabin negotiations with Syria and Iran, and the Pugwash workshop on the Middle East show that success of dialogue initiatives in changing behaviour is highly dependent on allowing face to face interaction of the conflicting parties.
4. Enhancing Cooperation among Middle Eastern States
The benefits of greater cooperation in the Middle East are numerous and substantial for the peoples of the region. Cooperation makes it more likely that the region’s future will be marked by sustainable economic and social development. The peaceful resolution of conflicts through greater cooperation reduces the likelihood of future wars. Enhanced regional security makes for a more predictable and stable political climate. The most pervasive benefit of cooperation is the prospect of improved living conditions and the quality of life for people in the region. Greater cooperation enhances the capacity of states to address environmental issues that threaten public health and the long-term productivity of the region’s natural resource base. Cooperation in addressing social and economic issues such as poverty and unemployment can substantially improve the standard of living in many societies in the region. Last but not least, greater cooperation builds the mutual confidence and trust among the peoples of the region that is so essential for the prospects of lasting peace. On all these counts, the peoples of the Middle East have much to gain from cooperation and much to lose in its absence. High stakes provide a powerful incentive for positive change. International organizations have been among the most forceful advocates of the benefits of increased cooperation in the Middle East. The United Nations’ development agencies in particular have worked to make a compelling case to states and societies in the region that their interests are best served through cooperative endeavors. UN agencies have often sought to “socialize” state and societal actors into embracing cooperative norms and practices, and to inculcate a sense of common purpose in addressing the region’s most pressing problems. This has been done with varying degrees of success and has at times been constrained or undermined by actions of member states. But overall, there has been a growing recognition in the region that greater cooperation is desirable and that international organizations have a constructive role to play in nurturing this change. Heeding the call for greater cooperation in the Middle East, there have been numerous initiatives by international and regional organizations to promote cooperation among states. Whether success in such endeavors has been sporadic will be examined in the following section.
4.1 Benefits of Cooperation in the Region
The benefits of Middle Eastern cooperation, once realized, are likely to be tremendous. The states in the region suffer from a number of common problems, including arid land, high population growth rates, and a shortage of natural resources relative to other regions of the world. By their very nature, these problems are best addressed through cooperation among the states in the region. An example of how cooperation could solve a common problem is the dispute over the sharing of the water of the River Jordan. A number of Israeli and Arab projects have been proposed to pump water from the Mediterranean or the Red Sea to the Dead Sea in order to slow down the shrinking of the latter. However, little progress has been made on these projects and the fragile political situation in the area makes it unlikely that any of these will be implemented in the near future. An international organization would be able to produce a binding agreement on how this water should be shared and put it into practice using cooperation between the states on a Joint Israeli-Jordanian or Jordanian-Syrian project to pipe water from the Sea of Galilee to Amman or the Jordan valley. In cases such as these on issues of vital importance to one or more parties, cooperation is the best way to achieve a solution that is acceptable to all. Overall, the joint solution to widespread problems through the free exchange of ideas and joint projects is likely to raise the standard of living in the region.
Cooperation has the potential to reduce conflict through the addressing of its root causes and create a more stable and secure environment. One form of cooperation is through the signing of a regional security arrangement or the inclusion of security clauses in other agreements. While creating the system such as that described in section 3.2.3 on the Maghreb is an ambitious goal given the current political situation in the Middle East, it is not an unrealistic long-term objective. For the duration of their involvements in joint projects, states will need to guarantee the safety and freedom of movement of the workers and resources involved. Step by step agreements on specific security issues such as the one between Israel and the PLO on the Gaza strip and the West Bank can be taken as a model. The most notable potential effects of increased cooperation are the preventing of war through the increase in opportunity cost and the resolution of issues which are currently causes of tension between states. This would lead to less frequent relapses into conflict and a reduction in arms spending. An example of how cooperation can resolve a current issue of tension is the Iran-Libya Sanctions Case, where the formation of a dispute resolution panel led to an agreement by the states to suspend the case sine die (indefinitely) in March 2001. A reversal of the decision to resume the case in 2004 may yet be possible. The most fundamental way to improve security in the region is changing the attitudes and perceptions of the peoples and states involved, and cooperation is the best means to that end.
4.2 Efforts by International Organizations to Enhance Cooperation
The Arab League is one of the most important regional organizations and has been actively involved in trying to create greater cooperation among nations in the region. The idea of collective security has been one of its prime concerns, and it achieved a significant milestone with the signing of a mutual defense and security pact in 2000. Although the chance of the pact being implemented is slim, as trust and cooperation improve among Arab states, a greater sense of shared security will develop and it may be possible in the future. Currently, the most successful area of cooperation within the Arab League has been economic in nature. In 1997, it held a conference with the UNDP and produced a comprehensive plan for Arab regional development, with the ultimate goal of eradicating poverty and achieving sustainable development. This plan was renewed in 2003 with leaders committing to a unified Arab economic strategy. Economic development will lead to greater social equity and an improvement in living standards throughout the region, all of which will foster improved relations and cooperation among nations.
Several international organizations have been actively working towards encouraging dialogue and cooperation among Middle Eastern states. The United Nations (UN) Development Programme has been working in the region to bring about greater integration and cooperation among nations. It views regional development as the most effective means of reaching its ultimate goal of human development. It has been involved in promoting dialogue on economic and social issues, as well as fostering a number of regional cooperation agreements in such areas as water resources and environmental protection. The UNDP sees this as an important first step in improving relations among nations, leading to a greater sense of trust and understanding, and eventually cooperation in addressing political and security issues.
4.3 Obstacles to Cooperation and Possible Solutions
Obstacles arising from the nature of the region and its relations
As we have already seen, the range of different conflicts and other security issues in the region pose a severe threat to any cooperative projects. With the likely loss of American influence in the region and the possible trend of Arab states turning more to intra-regional cooperation as a collective means of thwarting outside interference, there is a danger that international organizations may actually be marginalized in future attempts to facilitate cooperation. An even greater threat comes from the fact that undemocratic regimes might see cooperative moves with their neighbors as contrary to their own domestic interests. This is most notable in the case that cooperative security, such as the CSC process, may undermine the traditional realist methods of providing national security through armaments and alliances, by creating a more interdependent regional security. The Israeli-Palestinian case demonstrates how mutually beneficial projects can be constantly undermined by ongoing conflicts and security issues, which dilute the potential gains and make cooperation politically costly.
Obstacles to cooperation
Having discussed the various efforts by international organizations to enhance cooperation among Middle Eastern states, it is important now to consider the many obstacles to such cooperation. It is only by understanding the obstacles that the efforts, strategies, and projects implemented by the international organizations can be designed more effectively with a better chance of success. In this way, enhanced understanding of the issues surrounding current and future projects can be used by international organizations to influence policy and decision-making at both the regional and national level. An effective method for facilitating this exchange of information would actually be to involve a wider range of Middle Eastern actors in the international organizations themselves – a point we will return to later. For now, we will consider the obstacles as divided into two categories: first, the obstacles arising from the nature of the region and its relations, and secondly, those obstacles arising from the nature of the international organizations and their relations in the region.
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